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Although this is a book about the history of political ideas, and not about the history of political practices, it is worth using some historical examples to illustrate the diagram, before we go into the original texts of the thinkers who defended these mentalities.

The confrontation between classical liberals and fascists (a radical statist) during the rise of fascism in Europe (e.g., Mussolini’s Italy) highlights the opposition between individual freedom and totalitarianism, supporting the positioning of these groups as opposites.

The overlap between democratic leftists and classical liberals is seen in modern welfare states, where social democrats adopted pro-market policies while maintaining commitments to social welfare, as is the case of Fernando Henrique Cardoso (president of Brazil between 1995 and 2002).

Mussolini, initially a socialist, adopted fascism after the First World War, influenced by nationalism and disillusionment with internationalist socialism

The very identity of the National Socialist German Workers’ Party (a fascist party).

Furthermore, it is interesting to see how communists and other leftists claim that fascism and Nazism are right-wing, while conservatives claim that they are left-wing. In the circular diagram, both are correct to some extent: fascism and Nazism are to the right of communists and to the left of authoritarian conservatives.

The authoritarian tendencies shared by radical statists and authoritarian conservatives are evident in regimes such as Franco’s Spain, which combined conservative values ​​with fascist control, aligning themselves with the adjacency in the circle.

Here are some more historical examples in more detail:

1. Classical Liberals: The American Revolution (1765–1783)

Context and Principles: The American Revolution exemplified classical liberalism, with its emphasis on individual liberty, limited government, and resistance to arbitrary authority. Figures such as Thomas Jefferson and John Adams drew on John Locke’s ideas of natural rights and government by consent, advocating for independence from British rule to secure freedoms, as seen in documents such as the Declaration of Independence.

Relationship with Adjacent Groups:

• Democratic Leftists: The focus on equality and representation shared ground with early democratic leftist ideals, such as demands for broader (albeit limited in practice) suffrage. The rhetoric of “no taxation without representation” resonated with later democratic reform movements, such as universal suffrage in the 19th century.
• Moderate Conservatives: Some colonial leaders, such as Benjamin Franklin, initially favored gradual reforms within the British system, reflecting moderate conservative respect for established institutions, but shifted to liberal principles as tensions grew.

Opposition to Radical Statists: The anti-authoritarian stance of the revolution strongly opposed centralized control. The absolute authority of the British Crown under George III represented a concentration of radical statist power that liberals rejected.

Meaning for the Diagram: This case positions classical liberalism as a force for liberty, connecting democratic ideals with conservative pragmatism while opposing authoritarian control, aligning with its position as opposed to the radical statists in the circle.

2. Moderate Conservatives: The British Reform Acts (1832, 1867)

Context and Principles: The British Reform Acts, which gradually expanded voting rights, reflect moderate conservatism, committed to tradition and incremental change. Leaders such as Benjamin Disraeli balanced the preservation of aristocratic institutions with adaptation to pressures for reform, avoiding revolutionary upheavals.

Relationship with Adjacent Groups:

• Classical Liberals: The Reform Acts aligned with liberal calls for greater representation, as seen in the Whigs’ support for the Reform Act of 1832, showing an overlap in individual rights within a stable framework.
• Authoritarian Conservatives: Some Tories resisted reform, favoring traditional hierarchies, similar to the rigidity of the authoritarian Conservatives, but moderates such as Disraeli prevailed, illustrating a shift toward flexibility.

Opposition to Radical Leftists: The moderate approach contrasted sharply with radical leftists’ calls for immediate systemic change, such as the Chartists, who demanded universal suffrage and saw reforms as insufficient.

Significance for the Diagram: This example highlights moderate conservatism as a stabilizing force, open to liberal reforms but wary of radical change, reinforcing its position between classical liberals and authoritarian conservatives, as opposed to radical leftists.

3. Authoritarian Conservatives: Franco’s Spain (1939–1975)

Context and Principles: Francisco Franco’s regime in Spain epitomized authoritarian conservatism, blending strict traditionalism, Catholic values, and centralized control to maintain order after the Spanish Civil War. Franco suppressed dissent while maintaining social hierarchies, with policies such as censorship and political repression.

Relationship to Adjacent Groups:

• Radical Statists: Franco’s regime shared authoritarianism, centralization of power, and state control with fascism (a radical statism), adopting elements such as state propaganda and the cult of leadership, but was less ideologically extreme than Mussolini’s Italy, focusing on tradition rather than radical nationalism.
• Moderate Conservatives: Some Spanish elites supported Franco for stability, reflecting a moderately conservative respect for order, but his repression alienated those who favored gradual reforms.

Opposition to Democratic Leftists: Franco’s regime fiercely opposed democratic leftist movements, such as the socialist and liberal factions of the Spanish Republic, that sought equality and democratic governance, leading to brutal repressions.

Meaning for the Diagram: Franco’s Spain illustrates the proximity of authoritarian conservatism to fascism through shared mechanisms of control, while its opposition to democratic leftists highlights the tension between rigid hierarchy and egalitarian reform.

4. Radical Statists: Mussolini’s Fascist Italy (1922–1943)

Context and Principles: Benito Mussolini’s fascist regime in Italy embodied extreme nationalism, totalitarianism, and the suppression of dissent. The regime glorified the state, militarized society, and rejected democratic principles, centralizing power under Mussolini’s leadership, with policies such as the Pact of Steel.

Relationship with Adjacent Groups:

• Authoritarian Conservatives: Mussolini initially collaborated with conservative elites, sharing a desire for order, but his radical nationalism and state control overcame his traditionalism, as seen in tensions with monarchists.
• Radical Leftists: Despite ideological opposition, fascism’s totalitarian methods mirrored some radical leftist tactics, such as Leninist vanguardism, showing converge in practice.

Opposition to Classical Liberals: Fascism’s collectivism and state rule clashed directly with classical liberalism’s individual freedom, evident in Italy’s suppression of liberal intellectuals and a free press.

Significance for Diagram: Mussolini’s Italy anchored the position of fascism as opposed to classical liberalism, highlighting its authoritarian overlap with conservative neighbors and clear rejection of liberal freedoms.

5. Radical Leftists: The Russian Revolution (1917)

Context and Principles: The Bolshevik-led Russian Revolution under Vladimir Lenin represents radical leftism, seeking revolutionary change to overthrow capitalism and establish a workers’ state. The Bolsheviks embraced Marxist principles, using force to dismantle existing structures, as seen in the dissolution of the Constituent Assembly.

Relationship to Adjacent Groups:

• Democratic Leftists: Early socialist movements such as the Mensheviks shared goals of equality but favored reform over revolution, showing overlap before the radical turn of the Bolsheviks alienated moderates.
• Radical Statists: The authoritarian tactics of the revolution, such as the repression of the Cheka, paralleled fascist methods of control (a radical statism), illustrating how extreme left and right can share coercive tendencies.

Opposition to Moderate Conservatives: The Bolshevik rejection of tradition and private property clashed with moderate conservative values, as seen in the resistance of the White Army, rooted in the preservation of old hierarchies.

Significance for the Diagram: The Russian Revolution positions radical leftism as a disruptive force, adjacent to democratic leftists but opposed to moderate conservatives, with tactical similarities to fascism, despite ideological differences.

6. Democratic Leftists: Post-War Swedish Social Democracy (1945–1970)

Context and Principles: The Social Democratic Party of Sweden, under leaders such as Tage Erlander (Swedish Prime Minister 1946–1969), built a robust welfare state within a democratic framework, emphasizing social equality, workers’ rights, and progressive taxation, while preserving capitalism.

Relationship to Adjacent Groups:

• Classical Liberals: The Swedish model incorporated liberal principles such as individual freedoms and democratic institutions, evident in its respect for civil liberties alongside welfare policies.
• Radical Leftists: Social democrats shared the goal of reducing inequality with the Radicals, but rejected revolutionary methods, favoring parliamentary reforms over insurrections.

Opposition to Authoritarian Conservatives: The Swedish system, with its emphasis on equality and openness, contrasted with authoritarian conservative regimes, such as Franco’s Spain, which prioritized control over social progress.

Meaning for the Diagram: Swedish social democracy exemplifies democratic leftism by balancing reform and stability, connecting liberal and radical ideals, while opposing authoritarian rigidity.

Key Point

• Historical examples—the American Revolution, the British Reform Acts, Franco’s Spain, Mussolini’s Italy, the Russian Revolution, and Swedish social democracy—show how each group manifests itself, how adjacent groups in the circle collaborate or diverge, and how opposites collide, recognizing the complexity of real ideologies on the one hand, and the usefulness of the circle’s simplification for a first understanding of phenomena.